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Zimbabwe

Found at: gopherpedia.com:70/Zimbabwe


		

		
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=                              Zimbabwe                              =
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                             Introduction                             
======================================================================
Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked
country in Southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers,
bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest,
Zambia to the north, and Mozambique to the east. The capital and
largest city is Harare, and the second largest is Bulawayo.

		
A country of roughly 15 million people as per 2022 census, Zimbabwe's
largest ethnic group are the Shona, who make up 80% of the population,
followed by the Northern Ndebele and other smaller minorities.
Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele
the most common. Zimbabwe is a member of the United Nations, the
Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa.

		
Beginning in the 9th century, during its late Iron Age, the Bantu
people (who would become the ethnic Shona) built the city-state of
Great Zimbabwe; the city-state became one of the major African trade
centres by the 11th century but was abandoned by the mid 15th century.
From there, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was established, followed by the
Rozvi and Mutapa empires. The British South Africa Company of Cecil
Rhodes demarcated the Rhodesia region in 1890 when they conquered
Mashonaland and later in 1893 Matabeleland after the First Matabele
War. Company rule ended in 1923 with the establishment of Southern
Rhodesia as a self-governing British colony. In 1965, the white
minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia.
The state endured international isolation and a 15-year guerrilla war
with black nationalist forces; this culminated in a peace agreement
that established 'de jure' sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980.

		
Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his
ZANU-PF party won the general election following the end of white
minority rule and has remained the country's dominant party since. He
was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987, after converting the
country's initial parliamentary system into a presidential one, until
his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's authoritarian regime, the
state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for
widespread human rights violations. From 1997 to 2008 the economy
experienced consistent decline (and in the latter years,
hyperinflation), though it has since seen rapid growth after the use
of currencies other than the Zimbabwean dollar was permitted. In 2017,
in the wake of over a year of protests against his government as well
as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, a coup d'état resulted in
Mugabe's resignation. Emmerson Mnangagwa has since served as
Zimbabwe's president.

		

		
                              Etymology                               
======================================================================
The name "Zimbabwe" stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, a
medieval city (Masvingo) in the country's south-east. Two different
theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that
"Zimbabwe" derives from 'dzimba-dza-mabwe', translated from the
Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" ('dzimba' = plural of
'imba', "house"; 'mabwe' = plural of 'ibwe', "stone"). The
Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the
modern-day Masvingo province. Archaeologist Peter Garlake claims that
"Zimbabwe" represents a contracted form of 'dzimba-hwe', which means
"venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually
references chiefs' houses or graves.

		
Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia (1898), Rhodesia
(1965), and Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979). The first recorded use of
"Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as a
coinage by the black nationalist Michael Mawema, whose Zimbabwe
National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961.
The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the surname of Cecil Rhodes, the
primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory—was
perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its
colonial origin and connotations.

		
According to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to
choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as
"Matshobana" and "Monomotapa" before his suggestion, "Zimbabwe",
prevailed. It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be
used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland" — but
"Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the
generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.
Like those of many African countries that gained independence during
the Cold War, 'Zimbabwe' is an ethnically neutral name. It is
debatable to what extent Zimbabwe, being over 80% homogenously Shona
and dominated by them in various, can be described as a nation state.
The constitution acknowledges 16 languages, but only embraces two of
them nationally, Shona and English. Shona is taught widely in schools,
unlike Ndebele. Zimbabwe has additionally never had a non-Shona head
of state.

		

		
 Pre-colonial era 
==================
Archaeological records date human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe
to at least 500,000 years ago. Zimbabwe's earliest known inhabitants
were most likely the San people, who left behind a legacy of
arrowheads and cave paintings. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the
first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion.

		
Societies speaking proto-Shona languages first emerged in the middle
Limpopo River valley in the 9th century before moving on to the
Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau became the centre of
subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the
early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian
Ocean coast, helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th
century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that
dominated the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by
ruins at Great Zimbabwe, near Masvingo, and by other smaller sites.
The main archaeological site used a unique dry stone architecture. The
Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states
which had developed in Zimbabwe by the time the first European
explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold, ivory, and
copper for cloth and glass.

		
By 1220, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state
further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture.
From  1450 to 1760, the Kingdom of Mutapa ruled much of the area of
present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of central Mozambique. It is known by
many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as 'Mwene Mutapa'
or 'Monomotapa' as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its
strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese
sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which
left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.

		
As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a
new Shona state emerged, known as the Rozwi Empire. Relying on
centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi
(meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean
plateau in 1683. Around 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo
clan successfully rebelled against King Shaka and established his own
clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the
Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning
an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane. When Dutch
trekboers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe
even further northward, with the assistance of Tswana Barolong
warriors and Griqua commandos. By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the
Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states, and reduced
them to vassaldom.

		
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi
and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day
Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo
as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military
system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was
stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in
1868; following a violent power struggle, his son Lobengula succeeded
him.

		

		
 Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964) 
=======================================
In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British
South Africa Company (chartered in 1889). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a
concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele
peoples.

		
He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United
Kingdom to grant a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland, and
its subject states such as Mashonaland as well. Rhodes used this
document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column, a group of
Europeans protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP)
through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort
Salisbury (present-day Harare), and thereby establish company rule
over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new Maxim
guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the First Matabele
War. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar
concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake
Tanganyika, then known as "Zambesia". In accordance with the terms of
aforementioned concessions and treaties, mass settlement was
encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well
as over precious metals and other mineral resources.

		

		
In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name "Rhodesia" for the territory, in
honour of Rhodes. In 1898 "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name
for the region south of the Zambezi, which later adopted the name
"Zimbabwe". The region to the north, administered separately, was
later termed Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia). Shortly after the
disastrous Rhodes-sponsored Jameson Raid on the South African
Republic, the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their
charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The Second Matabele War of
1896-1897 lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was
assassinated by American scout Frederick Russell Burnham. Shona
agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as 'Chimurenga') against
company rule during 1896 and 1897. Following these failed
insurrections, the Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona
groups and organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring
Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.
The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923.
Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution
for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. Under the new
constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British
colony, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races
served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars in
the early-20th century. Proportional to the white population, Southern
Rhodesia contributed more 'per capita' to both the First and Second
World Wars than any other part of the empire, including Britain.

		
The 1930 Land Apportionment Act restricted black land ownership to
certain segments of the country, setting aside large areas solely for
the purchase of the white minority. This act, which led to rapidly
rising inequality, became the subject of frequent calls for subsequent
land reform. In 1953, in the face of African opposition, Britain
consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland (Malawi) in the
ill-fated Central African Federation, which Southern Rhodesia
essentially dominated. Growing African nationalism and general
dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the
union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While multiracial
democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority
rule.
Following Zambian independence (effective from October 1964), Ian
Smith's Rhodesian Front government in Salisbury dropped the
designation "Southern" in 1964 (once 'Northern Rhodesia' had changed
its name to 'Zambia', having the word 'Southern' before the name
'Rhodesia' became unnecessary and the country simply became known as
'Rhodesia' afterwards). Intent on effectively repudiating the recently
adopted British policy of "no independence before majority rule",
Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the
United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This marked the first such course
taken by a rebel British colony since the American declaration of
1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable
precedent to their own actions.

		

		
 Declaration of independence and civil war (1965–1980) 
=======================================================
The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of
rebellion but did not re-establish control by force.  The British
government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions against
Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in
1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing
the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state. These
sanctions were expanded again in 1968.

		
A civil war ensued when Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union
(ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU),
supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African
nations, initiated guerrilla operations against Rhodesia's
predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the Soviet
Union, the Warsaw Pact and associated nations such as Cuba, and
adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself
with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China.
Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a
referendum the previous year, but this went unrecognised
internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified,
eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant
communists.

		
In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led
by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, who offered to leave the white population
comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial
democracy. As a result of the Internal Settlement, elections were held
in April 1979, concluding with the United African National Council
(UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979,
Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name
was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control
of the Rhodesian Security Forces, civil service, judiciary, and a
third of parliament seats to whites. On 12 June, the United States
Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.

		
Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, held in
Lusaka, Zambia, from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government
invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional
conference at Lancaster House. The purpose of the conference was to
discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence
constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British
authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.
With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth
Affairs of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were
mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of
47 plenary sessions. On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major
interest represented reached the Lancaster House Agreement,
effectively ending the guerrilla war.

		
On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil
to revert to British colonial status. With the arrival of Christopher
Soames, the new governor on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took
control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia.
Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December and the United Nations on 16
December. During the elections of February 1980, Mugabe and the ZANU
party secured a landslide victory. Prince Charles, as the
representative of Britain, formally granted independence to the new
nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare in April 1980.

		

		
 Independence era (1980–present) 
=================================
Zimbabwe's first president after its independence was Canaan Banana in
what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as head of state. Mugabe
was the country's first prime minister and head of government. In
1980, Samora Machel told Mugabe that Zimbabwe was the "Jewel of
Africa" but added: "Don't tarnish it!".

		
New names for 32 places were gazetted on 18 April 1982 and by February
1984, there had been 42 changes, which included three rivers
(Umniati/Munyati; Lundi/Runde; Nuanetsi/Mwenezi), and several changes
from colonial names (such as Salisbury/Harare; Enkeldoorn/Chivhu;
Essexvale/Esigodini; Fort Victoria/Masvingo)

		
Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately
erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has
become known as 'Gukurahundi' (Shona: 'the early rain which washes
away the chaff before the spring rains'). The Fifth Brigade, a North
Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to Mugabe, entered
Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of
supporting "dissidents". Estimates for the number of deaths during the
five-year 'Gukurahundi' campaign ranged from 3,750 to 80,000.
Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps. The
campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a
unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the
Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). Elections
in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU-PF
party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.

		
During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often
demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and
ZANU-PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior
doctors went on strike over salary issues. The general health of the
population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated
25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was
affecting most of southern Africa. Land redistribution re-emerged as
the main issue for the ZANU-PF government around 1997. Despite the
existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme
since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population of around
0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile agricultural
land.

		
In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its Fast Track Land Reform
programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at
redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority
black population. Confiscations of white farmland, continuous
droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other support led
to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally
the country's leading export-producing sector. Some 58,000 independent
black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the
gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.

		
President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party leadership found themselves
beset by a wide range of international sanctions. In 2002, the nation
was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations due to the reckless
farm seizures and blatant election tampering. The following year,
Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth
membership.  In 2001, the United States enacted the Zimbabwe Democracy
and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA).  It came into effect in 2002 and
froze credit to the Zimbabwean government.

		
By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It is estimated that up
to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country.
Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less than
one U.S. dollar a day. Following elections in 2005, the government
initiated "Operation Murambatsvina", an effort to crack down on
illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a
substantial section of urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwean government
has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to
the population, although according to critics such as Amnesty
International, authorities have yet to properly substantiate their
claims.

		

		
On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a
parliamentary election. The results of this election were withheld for
two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the Movement
for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of
one seat in the lower house of parliament. In September 2008, a
power-sharing agreement was reached between Tsvangirai and President
Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister.
Due to ministerial differences between their respective political
parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February
2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely
expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless
"western sanctions" were lifted.
In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the
areas of living standards, public health (with a major cholera
outbreak in December) and various basic affairs. During this period,
NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during
this period of food insecurity in Zimbabwe. A 2011 survey by Freedom
House suggested that living conditions had improved since the
power-sharing agreement. The United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated in its 2012-2013 planning
document that the "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe
since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people".

		
A new constitution approved in the Zimbabwean constitutional
referendum, 2013 curtails presidential powers. Mugabe was re-elected
president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean general election which 'The
Economist' described as "rigged" and the 'Daily Telegraph' as
"stolen". The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and
tried to seek relief through the courts. In a surprising moment of
candour at the ZANU-PF congress in December 2014, President Robert
Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the
contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%. After winning the
election, the Mugabe ZANU-PF government re-instituted one party rule,
doubled the civil service and, according to 'The Economist', embarked
on "misrule and dazzling corruption". A 2017 study conducted by the
Institute for Security Studies (ISS) concluded that due to the
deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages
corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions"
with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to
travellers being one manifestation of this.

		
In July 2016 nationwide protests took place regarding the economic
collapse in the country. In November 2017, the army led a coup d'état
following the dismissal of Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa, placing
Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions
constituted a coup.  On 19 November 2017, ZANU-PF sacked Robert Mugabe
as party leader and appointed former Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa
in his place. On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation
prior to impeachment proceedings being completed. Although under the
Constitution of Zimbabwe Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice-president
Phelekezela Mphoko, a supporter of Grace Mugabe, ZANU-PF chief whip
Lovemore Matuke stated to the Reuters news agency that Mnangagwa would
be appointed as president.

		
On 30 July 2018 Zimbabwe held its general elections, which were won by
the ZANU-PF party led by Mnangagwa. Nelson Chamisa who was leading the
main opposition party MDC Alliance contested the election results
claiming voter fraud,  and subsequently filed a petition to the
Constitution Court of Zimbabwe. The court confirmed Mnangagwa's
victory, making him the newly elected president after Mugabe.

		
In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of
the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of
independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about
five per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this
rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe
would have in 2016 a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal
sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost
growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa
at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this
growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million.
Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were
believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and
partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and
deaths from politically motivated violence sponsored by the government
exceed 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or
indirectly caused the deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans in
37 years. According to World Food Programme, over two million people
are facing starvation because of the recent droughts the country is
going through.

		
In 2018, President Mnangagwa announced that his government would seek
to rejoin the Commonwealth, which is as of 2023 conducting a
fact-finding mission prior to asking the Secretary-General to issue a
recommendation.

		
In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second  term in an
outcome of the election rejected by the opposition and questioned by
observers.

		

		
                              Geography                               
======================================================================
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between
latitudes 15° and 23°S, and longitudes 25° and 34°E. It is bordered by
South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia
to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east and northeast. Its
northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from Namibia, nearly forming a
four-nation quadripoint. Most of the country is elevated, consisting
of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest
northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's
extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern
Highlands, with Mount Nyangani as the highest point at 2,592 m.

		
The highlands are known for their natural environment, with tourist
destinations such as Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba and
Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda. About 20% of the country consists of
low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. Victoria Falls, one of the
world's largest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the
country's extreme northwest and is part of the Zambezi river.

		

		
 Geology 
=========
Over geological time Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-Gondwana
erosion cycles (known as African and post-African), and a very
subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle.

		

		
 Climate 
=========
Zimbabwe has a subtropical climate with many local variations. The
southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, while parts of
the central plateau receive frost in winter. The Zambezi valley is
known for its extreme heat, and the Eastern Highlands usually
experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country.
The country's rainy season generally runs from late October to March,
and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is
faced with recurring droughts. In 2019, at least 55 elephants died
because of drought. Severe storms are rare.

		

		
 Biodiversity 
==============
Zimbabwe contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Kalahari
acacia-baikiaea woodlands, Southern Africa bushveld, Southern miombo
woodlands, Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands, Zambezian and mopane
woodlands, Zambezian halophytics, and Eastern Zimbabwe montane
forest-grassland mosaic in the Eastern Highlands.

		
The country is mostly savanna, although the moist and mountainous
Eastern Highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood
forests. Trees found in the Eastern Highlands include teak, mahogany,
enormous specimens of strangler fig, forest Newtonia, big leaf, white
stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others.

		
In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane, combretum
and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland,
dominated by brachystegia species and others. Among the numerous
flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily,
leonotis, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. There are around 350
species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many
snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species.

		
Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant
wildlife. Deforestation and poaching has reduced the amount of
wildlife. Woodland degradation and deforestation caused by population
growth, urban expansion and use for fuel are major concerns and have
led to erosion which diminishes the amount of fertile soil. Local
farmers have been criticised by environmentalists for burning off
vegetation to heat their tobacco barns. The country had a 2019 Forest
Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.31/10, ranking it 81st
globally out of 172 countries.

		

		
                              Government                              
======================================================================
Zimbabwe is a republic with a presidential system of government. The
semi-presidential system was abolished with the adoption of a new
constitution after a referendum in 2013. Under the constitutional
changes in 2005, an upper chamber, the Senate, was reinstated. The
House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament.

		
In 1987 Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the ceremonial
presidency and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive
president—a presidential system. His ZANU-PF party has won every
election since independence—in the 1990 election the second-placed
party, Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), obtained 20% of
the vote.

		

		
 Politics 
==========
During the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties,
including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near sweep by
the ruling party. When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000,
they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU-PF. Presidential
elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging,
intimidation and fraud. The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were
held on 31 March, and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud
and intimidation were made by the Movement for Democratic Change party
and Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120
constituencies. Moyo participated in the elections despite the
allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.

		

		
In the 2008 general election, the official results required a run-off
between Mugabe and Tsvangirai. The MDC-T challenged these results,
claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government. The
run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the
continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a
"violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai pulled
out of the presidential run-off, the election commission held the
run-off, and President Mugabe received a landslide majority. The MDC-T
did not participate in the Senate elections, while the MDC-M won five
seats in the Senate. The MDC-M was weakened by defections from members
of parliament and individuals who were disillusioned by their
manifesto. On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a
joint news conference in Johannesburg that the two MDC formations were
co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.
Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain president without a
parliamentary majority.

		
In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the
leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a
power-sharing deal in which Mugabe retained control over the army.
Donor nations adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real
change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves
to funding rebuilding efforts, which were estimated to take at least
five years. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as prime
minister by Mugabe.

		
In November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million
donated by The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. A
representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the
money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and
the government has failed to honour requests to return the money.

		
The status of Zimbabwe politics has been thrown into question by a
coup taking place in November 2017, ending Mugabe's 30 year
presidential incumbency. Emmerson Mnangagwa was appointed president
following this coup and was officially elected with 50.8% of the vote
in the 2018 Zimbabwean general election, avoiding a run-off and making
him the third president of Zimbabwe.

		
The government has received negative comments among its citizens for
always shutting down the internet in the past amid protests such as
the one planned on 31 July 2020.

		
In July 2023, Zimbabwean President Emmerson Mnangagwa voiced support
for the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

		

		
 Armed forces 
==============
The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three
insurrectionist forces - the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army
(ZANLA), the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), and the
Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) - after the Second Chimurenga and
Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the
formation of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) and Air Force of
Zimbabwe (AFZ) as separate entities under the command of General
Solomon Mujuru and Air Marshal Norman Walsh, who retired in 1982 and
was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to
Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai in 1985. In 2003, General
Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the
Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him
as Commander of the Army.

		
The ZNA has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about
5,139 standing personnel. The Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes
Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the Zimbabwe
Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.

		
Following majority rule in early 1980, British Army trainers oversaw
the integration of guerrilla fighters into a battalion structure
overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a
system was followed where the top-performing candidate became
battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her
second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice
versa. This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command
structure.

		
The ZNA was originally formed into four brigades, composed of a total
of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost
entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while
unintegrated battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles were assigned
to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981
and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and
murder during the brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what became
known as 'Gukurahundi'. The brigade had been re-formed by 2006, with
its commander, Brigadier General John Mupande praising its "rich
history".

		

		
 Human rights 
==============
There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations
of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and the
dominant ZANU-PF party. According to human rights organisations such
as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch the government of
Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, freedom of movement and
residence, freedom of assembly and the protection of the law. In 2009,
Gregory Stanton, president of the International Association of
Genocide Scholars, stated there was "clear evidence that Mugabe
government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was
sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to
trial in front of the International Criminal Court."

		
Male homosexuality is illegal in Zimbabwe. Since 1995, the government
has carried out campaigns against both homosexual men and women.
President Mugabe has blamed gays for many of Zimbabwe's problems and
viewed homosexuality as an "un-African" and immoral culture brought by
European colonists and practised by only "a few whites" in his
country.

		
Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of reprisals by the
police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 MDC rally and
several others during the 2008 election campaign. Police actions have
been strongly condemned by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, the
European Union, and the United States. There are also concerns over
Fox Southwest media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is
accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech. It
has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the
Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, as a propaganda tool. Newspapers
critical of the government, such as the 'Daily News', closed after
bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew
their licence. BBC News, Sky News, and CNN were banned from filming or
reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and
CNN were lifted. Sky News continues to report on happenings within
Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.

		
On 24 July 2020, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights (OHCHR) expressed concerns over allegations
suggesting that Zimbabwean authorities may have used the COVID-19
crisis as a pretext to suppress freedom of expression and peaceful
assembly on the streets. OHCHR spokesperson Liz Throssell stated that
people have a right to protest corruption or anything else. The
authorities in Zimbabwe used force to disperse and arrest nurses and
health workers, who were peacefully protesting for better salaries and
work conditions. The reports suggest that a few members of opposition
party and investigative journalists were also arbitrarily arrested and
detained for taking part in a protest.

		
On 5 August 2020, the #ZimbabweanLivesMatter campaign on Twitter drew
attention of international celebrities and politicians towards human
rights abuses in the country, mounting pressure on Emmerson
Mnangagwa's government. The campaign was in response to arrests,
abductions and torture of political activists and the incarceration of
journalist Hopewell Chin'ono and the Booker Prize shortlisted author
Tsitsi Dangarembga.

		

		
 Administrative divisions 
==========================
Zimbabwe has a centralised government and is divided into eight
provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative
purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government
administration is usually carried out.

		
Province !! Capital
Bulawayo 	 Bulawayo
Harare 	 Harare
Manicaland 	 Mutare
Mashonaland Central 	 Bindura
Mashonaland East 	 Marondera
Mashonaland West 	 Chinhoyi
Masvingo 	 Masvingo city
Matabeleland North 	 Lupane District
Matabeleland South 	 Gwanda
Midlands 	 Gweru

		
The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland
and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was
the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company
Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the
First Matabele War. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial
territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people, although there
are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is
headed by a provincial governor, appointed by the president. The
provincial government is run by a provincial administrator, appointed
by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at
provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national
government departments.

		
The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 wards
(sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by
a district administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission.
There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief
executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected
ward councillors, the district administrator, and one representative
of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in
the district. Other government functions at district level are carried
out by district offices of national government departments.

		
At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising
the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders
subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development
Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an
elected Village Development Committee and a headman (traditional
leader subordinate to the kraalhead).

		

		
 Sanctions 
===========
Since the early 2000s, Zimbabwe has been under sanctions imposed by
the United States and the European Union that have shaped Zimbabwe's
domestic politics as well as the country's relations with the Western
nations. In 2002, Zimbabwe held general elections and ahead of that
election the EU sent observers, but the election observer team was
forced to leave the country. In February 2002 the EU placed targeted
or restrictive measures on Zimbabwe. At least 20 government officials
were banned from entering Europe, and EU funding was halted. Prior to
the elections there was $128 million that was budgeted for the
Zimbabwean government from 2002 to 2007, this was cancelled.
Nevertheless, the EU only stopped funding the government directly but
it continued sending money only through aid agencies and NGOs.

		
After some years the EU and Zimbabwe resolved some of their disputes
and a lot of the EU sanctions were removed. Only Mugabe and his wife
remained on the list while other government officials were removed.
However, the EU still did not give Zimbabwe money. So, the government
channels money through NGOs as it was seen on 4 March 2019 - 21 March
2019 Cyclone Idai.

		
The United States also imposed sanctions on Zimbabwe. There are two
types of U.S. sanctions on Zimbabwe. The first one is Zimbabwe
Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA) and the second one is the
Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA made several demands, the first one
was that Zimbabwe must respect human rights, second Zimbabwe must stop
its interference in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, third
Zimbabwe must stop the expropriation of white farms. If none of these
demands were met, the U.S. would block the IMF and the World Bank from
lending money to Zimbabwe. A new ZIDERA came into effect in 2018 with
the motto that, Restore Democracy or there won't be any friendship,
there must be free elections, free media and human rights, Zimbabwe
must enforce the ruling of the SADC Tribunal. The Targeted Sanctions
Program was implemented in 2003, which lists Zimbabwean companies and
people who are not allowed to deal with U.S. companies. The sanctions
on Zimbabwe have been in place for more than two decades. In March
2021 the U.S. renewed its sanctions on Zimbabwe.

		

		
                               Economy                                
======================================================================
Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries,
since 1950
Since January 2002, the government has had its lines of credit at
international financial institutions frozen, through U.S. legislation
called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001
(ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the secretary of the treasury to direct
international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans
and credit to the Zimbabwean government. According to the United
States, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or
controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.

		
Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5%
GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). The economy
declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and
18% in 2003. Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of
dollars from the economy. From 1999 to 2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest
ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%. The downward
spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and
corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white
farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000. The
Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western
policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the
economy.

		
By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to
the same levels in real terms as 1953. In 2005, the government, led by
central bank governor Gideon Gono, started making overtures that white
farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the
country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer
productive. By 2016, there remained about 300 of the original 4,500
farms owned by white farmers. The farms that left were either too
remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with
the regime. In January 2007, the government issued long-term leases to
some white farmers. At the same time, however, the government also
continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given
eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.
Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the
cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's
80% formal unemployment rate.

		
Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an estimated
high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the Central
Statistical Office. This represented a state of hyperinflation, and
the central bank introduced a new 100 trillion dollar note. In January
2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance
Minister Patrick Chinamasa announced that Zimbabweans would be
permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business,
alongside the Zimbabwean dollar. In an effort to combat inflation and
foster economic growth, the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended
indefinitely in April 2009. In 2016, Zimbabwe allowed trade in the
United States dollar and various other currencies such as the rand
(South Africa), the pula (Botswana), the euro, and the pound sterling
(UK). In February 2019, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe Governor John
Mangudya introduced a new local currency, the Real Time Gross
Settlement dollar, in a move to address some of the Zimbabwean
economic and financial challenges.

		
After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of
several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the
Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8-9% per year between 2009
and 2012. In November 2010, the International Monetary Fund described
the Zimbabwean economy as "completing its second year of buoyant
economic growth". The pan-African investment bank IMARA released a
favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in
Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts. In
January 2013, the finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in
their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming
elections. By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s
but growth faltered between 2012 and 2016. Inflation was 42% in 2018;
in June 2019, the inflation rate reached 175%, leading to mass unrest
across the country.

		

		
 Minerals 
==========
The mining sector is lucrative, with some of the world's largest
platinum reserves being mined by Anglo American plc, Zimplats, and
Impala Platinum. Zimplats, the nation's largest platinum company, has
proceeded with US$500 million in expansions, and is also continuing a
separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to
nationalise the company.

		
The Marange diamond fields, discovered in 2006, are considered the
biggest diamond find in over a century. They have the potential to
improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost
all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army
officers and ZANU-PF politicians. In terms of carats produced, the
Marange field is one of the largest diamond-producing projects in the
world, estimated to have produced 12 million carats in 2014 worth over
$350 million.

		
, Metallon Corporation was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.

		

		
 Agriculture 
=============
Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of
exports and foreign exchange and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the
government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning
Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products. For example, between
2000 and 2016, annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to
60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons
and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 head to 244,000
head. Coffee production, once a prized export commodity, came to a
virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee
farms in 2000 and has never recovered.

		
For the past ten years, the International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt
conservation agriculture techniques, a sustainable method of farming
that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of
minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic
mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil
erosion, and build up organic soil content. Between 2005 and 2011, the
number of smallholders practicing conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe
increased from 5,000 to more than 150,000. Cereal yields rose between
15 and 100 per cent across different regions. The government declared
potato a national strategic food security crop in 2012.

		

		
 Tourism 
=========
Since the land reform programme in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has
steadily declined. In 2018, tourism peaked with 2.6 million tourists.
In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe was $1.1
billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's GDP. Employment in travel
and tourism, as well as the industries indirectly supported by travel
and tourism, was 5.2% of national employment.

		
Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007.
Australia's Qantas, Germany's Lufthansa, and Austrian Airlines were
among the first to pull out and in 2007 British Airways suspended all
direct flights to Harare. The country's flagship airline, Air
Zimbabwe, which operated flights throughout Africa and a few
destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.
As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to
Zimbabwe.

		
Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the
Zambezi, which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north-west
of Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls is considered to be the largest waterfall
in the world. Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for
these locations came to the Zimbabwe side, but now Zambia is the main
beneficiary. The Victoria Falls National Park is also in this area and
is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe, the largest of
which is Hwange National Park. Lake Kariba, another site for tourism,
is the largest reservoir in the world.

		
The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the
border with Mozambique. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, Mount Nyangani
at 2,593 m is located there as well as the Bvumba Mountains and the
Nyanga National Park. World's View is in these mountains, and it is
from here that places as far away as 60 - are visible and, on clear
days, the town of Rusape can be seen.

		
Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient
and medieval ruined cities built in a unique dry stone style. Among
the most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo.
Other ruins include Khami, Dhlo-Dhlo and Naletale. The Matobo Hills
are an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 22 mi
south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The hills were formed over two
billion years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being
eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and broken kopjes, strewn
with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi,
founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald
Heads'. They have become a tourist attraction because of their ancient
shapes and local wildlife. Cecil Rhodes and other early white
colonists like Leander Starr Jameson are buried in these hills at
World's View.

		

		
 Water supply and sanitation 
=============================
There are many successful small-scale water supply and sanitation
programs, but there is an overall lack of improved water and
sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the
World Health Organization in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to
improved (i.e. clean) drinking water sources, and only 40% of
Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities. Access to
improved water supply and sanitation is noticeably limited in rural
areas. There are many factors that continue to determine the nature of
water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe for the foreseeable future;
three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean
economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organisations to build and
finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the
state.

		

		
 Science and technology 
========================
Zimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a
long-standing tradition of promoting research and development, as
evidenced by the levy imposed on tobacco-growers since the 1930s to
promote market research. The country has a well-developed education
system, with one in 11 adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the
country's solid knowledge base and abundant natural resources,
Zimbabwe has great growth potential. Zimbabwe was ranked 117th in the
Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from rank 107 in 2022.

		
To achieve its growth potential, Zimbabwe will need to correct several
structural weaknesses. For instance, it lacks the critical mass of
researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the infrastructure
is in place to harness research and development to Zimbabwe's
socio-economic development, universities and research institutions
lack the financial and human resources to conduct research and the
regulatory environment hampers the transfer of new technologies to the
business sector. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of
university students and professionals in key areas of expertise
(medicine, engineering, etc.) that is of growing concern. More than
22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees
abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a
whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in
the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the
continental average (91 in 2013) but only one-quarter the researcher
density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The government
has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information
for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.

		

		
The country's 'Second Science and Technology Policy' was launched in
June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces
the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes
biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs),
space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems,
technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent
environmental challenges. The 'Second Science and Technology Policy'
also asserts the government's commitment to allocating at least 1% of
GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university
education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring
that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying
science subjects.

		
In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in
internationally cataloged journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web
of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe
sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius
(71), Botswana (103) and, above all, South Africa (175) and the
Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific
publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of
176 per million.

		

		
 Population 
============
Expanding from a population of 2,746,396 in 1950, Zimbabwe's
population has rapidly increased. Based on , the population of
Zimbabwe was estimated by the United Nations at  in .

		

		
 Ethnic groups 
===============
According to the 2012 census report, 99.7% of the population is of
African origin. The majority people, the Shona, comprise 82%, while
Ndebele make up 14% of the population. The Ndebele descended from Zulu
migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they
intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over
the last five years, mainly for South Africa. Other ethnic groups
include Venda, Tonga, Tsonga, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana,
Xhosa and Lozi.

		
Minority ethnic groups include white Zimbabweans, who make up less
than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of
British origin, but there are also Afrikaner, Greek, Portuguese,
French and Dutch communities. The white population dropped from a peak
of around 278,000, or 4.3% of the population, in 1975. The 2012 census
lists the total white population at 28,782 (roughly 0.22% of the
population), one-twentieth of its peak. Most emigration has been to
the United Kingdom (between 200,000 and 500,000 Britons are of
Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia,
Mozambique, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Coloureds form 0.5% of
the population, and various Asian ethnic groups, mostly of Indian and
Chinese origin, are also 0.5%.

		

		
 Languages 
===========
Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act
of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised
languages. English is the main language used in the education and
judicial systems. The Bantu languages Shona and Ndebele are the
principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Shona is spoken by 78% of
the population, Ndebele by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include
Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya. Less than
2.5%, mainly the white and "coloured" (mixed race) minorities,
consider English their native language. Shona has a rich oral
tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, 'Feso'
by Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956. English is primarily spoken
in the cities but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news
are broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English.

		
There is a large community of Portuguese speakers in Zimbabwe, mainly
in the border areas with Mozambique and in major cities. Beginning in
2017, teaching Portuguese was included in secondary education of
Zimbabwe.

		

		
 Religion 
==========
According to the 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey by the Zimbabwe
National Statistics Agency, 84% of Zimbabweans are Christian, 10% do
not belong to any religion, and 0.7% are Muslim. An estimated 62% of
the population attend religious services regularly. Approximately 69%
of Zimbabweans belong to Protestant Christianity, while 8% are Roman
Catholic. Pentecostal-charismatic forms of Christianity, in
particular, have grown rapidly in recent years and are playing a
prominent role in public, social and political life. The largest
Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist
and Methodist.

		
As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring
traditional beliefs. Indigenous religion, which predates colonialism,
has become relatively marginal but continues to be an important part
of the Zimbabwean religious field. Ancestral worship is the most
practised non-Christian religion, involving spiritual intercession;
central to many ceremonial proceedings is the mbira dzavadzimu,
meaning "voice of the ancestors", which is an instrument related to
many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa.

		

		
 Health 
========
At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in
the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after
independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage,
access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate. Zimbabwe was
thus considered internationally to have achieved a good record of
health development.

		
Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases. The gains on
the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,
the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the economic crisis since
2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the
world according to UN figure—44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60
in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015. The rapid drop was ascribed
mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Infant mortality rose from 6% in the
late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004. Official fertility rates over the last
decade were 3.6 (2002), 3.8 (2006) and 3.8 (2012). The 2014 maternal
mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614 compared to 960
in 2010-11 and 232 in 1990. The under five mortality rate, per 1,000
births was 75 in 2014 (94 in 2009). The number of midwives per 1,000
live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for
pregnant women 1 in 42.

		
In 2006 an association of doctors in Zimbabwe made calls for Mugabe to
make moves to assist the ailing health service. The HIV infection rate
in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15-49 in 2009.
UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from
26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004. By 2016 HIV/AIDS prevalence had been
reduced to 13.5% compared to 40% in 1998.

		
At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's
four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe
Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no
operating theatres working. Those hospitals still open were not able
to obtain basic drugs and medicines. The situation changed drastically
after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency
system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis
also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with
medical knowledge.
In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing
cholera epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been
infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces, and the outbreak had
spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia. On 4 December
2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national
emergency and asked for international aid. By 9 March 2009 The World
Health Organization estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the
waterborne disease since the outbreak began, and the total number of
cases recorded had reached 89,018. In Harare, the city council offered
free graves to cholera victims.

		

		
 Education 
===========
Large investments in education since independence has resulted in the
highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90.70%. This
is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the United Nations
Development Programme and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while
still substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.

		
The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to
independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are
attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government.
School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government
has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrolment until
they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry
of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government
schools, but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by
the cabinet of Zimbabwe. The education department has stated that
20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of
Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.
Education came under threat since the economic changes in 2000, with
teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to
concentrate because of hunger, and the price of uniforms soaring
making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main
targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong
supporters.

		
Zimbabwe's education system consists of two years of pre-school, seven
years of primary and six years of secondary schooling before students
can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in
Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, separated by
one-month breaks, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year.
National examinations are written during the third term in November,
with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.

		
There are seven public (government) universities as well as four
church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are internationally
accredited. The University of Zimbabwe, the first and largest, was
built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of Mount Pleasant.
Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube,
Peter Moyo, Tendai Biti, Chenjerai Hove and Arthur Mutambara. Many of
the politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees
from universities in the United States or other universities abroad.

		
National University of Science and Technology is the second largest
public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was
established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology
strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in
Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international
fraternity of universities. Africa University is a United Methodist
university in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36
African countries.

		

		
 Gender equality 
=================
Women in Zimbabwe are disadvantaged in many facets including economic,
political, and social spheres, and experience sex and gender based
violence. A 2014 UN report found that deep rooted cultural issues,
patriarchal attitudes, and religious practices negatively impacted
women's rights and freedoms in the country. These negative views
toward women as well as societal norms impact the incentive for women
to participate in the economy and hinder their economic production.
Zimbabwe's constitution has provisions in it that provide incentive to
achieve greater gender equality, but the data shows that enforcement
has been lax and adoption slow. In December 2016 the International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies conducted a case
study to determine how to best implement effective policy to address
issues such as gender violence and implementation of equality laws. It
was found that sex and gender based violence against women and girls
was increasing in areas that had experienced disasters (floods,
drought, disease) but could not quantify the extent of the increase.
Some of the obstacles in combating these issues are that there are
economic barriers to declaring sex and gender based violence to be
unacceptable as well as social barriers. Additionally, governmental
services which were installed to help educate the populace about these
issues as well as provide services to victims are underfunded and
unable to carry out their duties. The UN also provided economic
incentive to adopt policies which would discourage these practices
which negatively impacted women in Zimbabwe.

		
Women are often seen as inferior, treated as objects, and viewed in
subordinate roles in history and philosophy. Ubuntu, an African
philosophy's spiritual aspect, instills the belief that boys should be
more valued than girls as boys pass on lineage, and the belief system
places high value in respecting one's ancestors. A common expression
used in court, "'vakadzi ngavanyarare'", translates to "'women should
keep quiet,'" and as a result women are not consulted in
decision-making; they must implement the men's wishes. The
subordination of women in Zimbabwe, and the cultural forces which
dictate what they must be, have led to deaths and the sacrifice of
professional advancement in order for them to fulfill their roles as
wives, mothers, and subordinates. Women are taught that they must
never refuse their husband's sexual advances, even if they know they
are infected with HIV from being unfaithful. As a result of this
practice, Zimbabwean women aged 15-49 have an HIV prevalence rate of
16.1% and make up 62% of the total population infected with HIV in
that age group.

		

		
                               Culture                                
======================================================================
Zimbabwe has many different cultures, with Shona beliefs and
ceremonies being prominent. The Shona people have many types of
sculptures and carvings.

		
Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.
Celebrations are held at either the National Sports Stadium or Rufaro
Stadium in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in
1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations, doves are
released to symbolise peace, fighter jets fly over, and the national
anthem is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president
after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed
forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of
Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.
Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the Miss Heritage
Zimbabwe contest, which has been held annually since 2012.

		

		
 Arts 
======
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles,
jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are
symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a
single piece of wood. Shona sculpture, which has a long cultural
history, began evolving into its modern form in the mid 20th century
and gained increasing international popularity. Most subjects of
carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are
made with sedimentary rock such as soapstone, as well as harder
igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite.
Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China
and Canada. e.g. Dominic Benhura's statue in the Singapore Botanic
Gardens.

		
Shona sculpture has survived through the ages, and the modern style is
a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World-renowned
Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas Nesbert and Anderson
Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika.

		
Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. Charles
Mungoshi is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in
English and in Shona, and his poems and books have sold well with both
the black and white communities. Catherine Buckle has achieved
international recognition with her two books 'African Tears' and
'Beyond Tears' which tell of the ordeal she went through under the
2000 Land Reform. The first Prime Minister of Rhodesia, Ian Smith,
wrote two books - 'The Great Betrayal' and 'Bitter Harvest.' The book
'The House of Hunger' by Dambudzo Marechera won the Guardian Fiction
Prize in the UK in 1979. The Nobel Prize-winning author Doris
Lessing's first novel 'The Grass Is Singing' is set in Rhodesia, as
are the first four volumes of her 'Children of Violence' sequence and
her collection of short stories entitled 'African Stories'. In 2013
NoViolet Bulawayo's novel 'We Need New Names' was shortlisted for the
Booker Prize. The novel was inspired by a photograph of a child who
lost their home in Operation Murambatsvina, Mugabe's slum clearance
programme which began in 2005. Bulawayo's second novel, 'Glory', a
satire based on the 2017 coup against Robert Mugabe, was also
shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Zimbabwean author Tsitsi
Dangarembga's novels have received widespread critical acclaim and her
third, 'This Mournable Body', was shortlisted for the Booker Prize in
2020.

		
Notable Zimbabwean artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas
Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis
of man into beast. Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver
Mtukudzi, the Bhundu Boys; Stella Chiweshe, Alick Macheso and Audius
Mtawarira have achieved international recognition. Among members of
the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with
numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.

		

		
 Cuisine 
=========
Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on
a few staple foods. "Mealie meal", also known as cornmeal, is used to
prepare 'sadza' or 'isitshwala', as well as porridge known as 'bota'
or 'ilambazi'. 'Sadza' is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to
produce a thick paste/porridge. After the paste has been cooking for
several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is
usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as gravy,
vegetables (spinach, chomolia, or spring greens/collard greens),
beans, and meat (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried). 'Sadza' is
also commonly eaten with curdled milk (sour milk), commonly known as
"lacto" ('mukaka wakakora'), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known
locally as 'kapenta' or 'matemba'. 'Bota' is a thinner porridge,
cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with
peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam. 'Bota' is usually eaten for
breakfast.

		
Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be
celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued
or roasted by the family.

		
Even though the Afrikaners are a small group (10%) within the white
minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. 'Biltong', a type of
jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat
to dry in the shade. 'Boerewors' is served with 'sadza'. It is a long
sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef rather than pork, and
barbecued.

		
As Zimbabwe was a British colony, some people there have adopted some
colonial-era English eating habits. For example, most people will have
porridge in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They
will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked
'sadza', or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After
lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served
before dinner. It is not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner.

		
Rice, pasta, and potato-based foods (French fries and mashed potato)
also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice
cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed
vegetables and meat. A potpourri of peanuts known as 'nzungu', boiled
and sundried maize, black-eyed peas known as 'nyemba', and Bambara
groundnuts known as 'nyimo' makes a traditional dish called
'mutakura'.

		

		
 Sports 
========
Football '(also known as soccer)' is the most popular sport in
Zimbabwe. The Warriors have qualified for the Africa Cup of Nations
five times (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), and won the Southern Africa
championship on six occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) and
the Eastern Africa cup once (1985). The team is ranked 68th in 2022.
Rugby union is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. The national side have
represented the country at 2 Rugby World Cup tournaments in 1987 and
1991.

		
Cricket is also a very popular sport in Zimbabwe. It used to have a
following mostly among the white minority, but it has recently grown
to become a widely popular sport among most Zimbabweans. It is one of
twelve Test cricket playing nations and an ICC full member as well.
Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include Andy Flower, Heath
Streak and Brendan Taylor.

		
Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in field hockey with the
women's team at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, and seven by
swimmer Kirsty Coventry, three at the 2004 Summer Olympics and four at
the 2008 Summer Olympics. Zimbabwe has done well in the Commonwealth
Games and All-Africa Games in swimming with Coventry obtaining 11 gold
medals in the different competitions. Zimbabwe has competed at
Wimbledon and the Davis Cup in tennis, most notably with the Black
family, which comprises Wayne Black, Byron Black and Cara Black. The
Zimbabwean Nick Price held the official World Number 1 golf status
longer than any player from Africa has done.

		
Other sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball, volleyball, netball,
and water polo, as well as squash, motorsport, martial arts, chess,
cycling, polocrosse, kayaking and horse racing. However, most of these
sports do not have international representatives but instead stay at a
junior or national level.

		
Zimbabwean professional rugby league players playing overseas are
Masimbaashe Motongo and Judah Mazive. Former players include now
SANZAAR CEO Andy Marinos who made an appearance for South Africa at
the Super League World Nines and featured for the Sydney Bulldogs as
well as Zimbabwe-born former Scotland rugby union international Scott
Gray, who spent time at the Brisbane Broncos.

		
Zimbabwe has had success in karate as Zimbabwe's Samson Muripo became
Kyokushin world champion in Osaka, Japan in 2009. Muripo is a two-time
World Kyokushi Karate Champion and was the first black African to
become the World Kyokushin Karate Champion.

		

		
 Media 
=======
The media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse, having come under
tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the
economic and political crisis. The Zimbabwean constitution promises
freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new
media and information minister in 2013 the media is facing less
political interference, and the supreme court has ruled some sections
of the strict media laws as unconstitutional. In July 2009 the BBC and
CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from
Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity
stated that, "the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from
carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe".

		
In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the
inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the commission
licensed three privately owned newspapers, including the previously
banned 'Daily News', for publication. Reporters Without Borders
described the decisions as a "major advance". In June 2010 'NewsDay'
became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in
Zimbabwe in seven years. ZBC's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was
ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012. The
main published newspapers are 'The Herald' and 'The Chronicle' which
are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively.

		
Since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act was
passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the
government, including 'Daily News' whose managing director Wilf Mbanga
went on to form the influential 'The Zimbabwean'. As a result, many
press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western
countries by exiled Zimbabweans. Because the internet is unrestricted,
many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by
exiled journalists. Reporters Without Borders claims the media
environment in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, imprisonment,
censorship, blackmail, abuse of power and denial of justice are all
brought to bear to keep firm control over the news." In its 2021
report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 130th
out of 180, noting that "access to information has improved and
self-censorship has declined, but journalists are still often attacked
or arrested". The government also bans many foreign broadcasting
stations from Zimbabwe, including the CBC, Sky News, Channel 4,
American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation,
and Fox News. News agencies and newspapers from other Western
countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country.

		

		
 National symbols 
==================
The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird appears on the national flags and the
coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on banknotes
and coins (first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar). It
probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle. The
famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the
ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.

		
Balancing rocks are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks
are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when
ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks
surrounding them erode away. They have been depicted on both the
banknotes of Zimbabwe and the Rhodesian dollar banknotes. The ones
found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are
located in Epworth, approximately 9 mi southeast of Harare. There are
many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and
paired columns of three or more rocks. These formations are a feature
of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa
northwards to Sudan. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are
located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.

		
The national anthem of Zimbabwe is "Raise the Flag of Zimbabwe" (; ).
It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to
replace  as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song
written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo and composed by Fred
Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main
languages of Zimbabwe.

		

		
                               See also                               
======================================================================
* Index of Zimbabwe-related articles
* Outline of Zimbabwe

		

		
                           Further reading                            
======================================================================
*
* .
* Bourne, Richard. 'Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?' (2011);
302 pages.
* , 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of
Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in
Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of
Rhodesian discourse.
* Meredith, Martin. 'Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for
Zimbabwe's Future' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/
excerpt and text search].
* .
* Smith, Ian Douglas. 'Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of
its Independence' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/
excerpt and text search].
* David Coltart. The struggle continues: 50 Years of Tyranny in
Zimbabwe. Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd: South Africa, 2016.

		

		
                            External links                            
======================================================================
* [https://www.zim.gov.zw/ Official Government of Zimbabwe web
portal]. .
* [https://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe]
*
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249 Zimbabwe profile]
from the BBC News
*
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/
Zimbabwe]. 'The World Factbook'. Central Intelligence Agency.
*
[https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/zimbabwe.htm
Zimbabwe] from 'UCB Libraries GovPubs'
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZW Key
Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe] from International Futures
*
[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe]

		

		
 License 
=========
All content on Gopherpedia comes from Wikipedia, and is licensed under CC-BY-SA
License URL: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Original Article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe

		

		
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